None of us likes pain. Few are prepared to put up with it if it can be avoided or relieved.

One of the most severe pains is produced by a stone from the kidney.

Renal stones or calculi are common in Australia and other warm climates because, it is thought, of the concentrated urine which is a feature of those who live where a lot of fluid is lost by perspiration.

Before the 20th century, bladder stones were common and gave rise to a lot of controversy as to whether they should be removed by operation. The original oath of Hippocrates forbad physicians to “cut even for the stone.”

Now bladder stones are rarely seen. This may be due to better nutrition or other factors.

Apart from the increase in the amounts of soluble substances which may precipitate out of urine there are several other factors which may cause stones to form in the kidneys.

Vitamin A is concerned with the nourishment of skin and other epithelial surfaces.

It is thought that a deficiency of this vitamin may lead to degeneration of the epithelium lining the kidney and debris from this could form the nidus on which various salts are laid down and stones form.

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